Urban Lab Camp 2024| Degrowth: Reflections from the Global
“It seems that the world is growing in reverse for us, the countries of the South.” An ascending straight line is often expected in economic growth, as such development projects and narratives are founded and created. Nations compete over natural resources to continue this upward trajectory towards prosperity. However, the flip side of this expectation to maintain the speed and boldness of the ascending straight line is that it moves like a carriage, breaking bodies in its path. Is it possible to slow down so that to think or reconsider the trajectory? Are nations really growing, or is it just a silly game that the world has been engaged in for thousands of years and has not lost its allure? This publication features the outcomes of the sixth Urban Lab Camp (ULC) held in Port Said from 12 to 16 September 2024, in partnership between Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung (FES) Egypt Office, and the Bibliotheca Alexandrina, in collaboration with the Human and the City for Social Research (HCSR) and several specialists showcasing the Urban Lab Camp methodology as a cooperative platform of critical knowledge production on the intersections of urbanism, climate change and development. The volume focuses on the concept of “degrowth” from the perspective of the Global South, and specifically from the Egyptian experience, as an entry point to questioning the globally-dominant growth patterns and their relationship with urban transformations, climate changes and climate and social justice. Texts tackle the intersections of urbanism, consumerism, and managing natural resources, and pose questions on the beneficiaries and the marginalized from growth, and the possibilities of alternative paths towards a more just and sustainable development. Participants exceeded twenty, with varied educational and professional backgrounds across economics, urban planning, agriculture, arts, and humanities, and geographically ranging from the far north on the Mediterranean coast to the far south in Aswan, reflecting different approaches to the Egyptian experience and its positionality within the Global South. Such a publication aspires to be a tool for critical thinking, opening spaces to reconsider the concepts of progress and development, and relate them to the cities’ need and local potentials.
The Environmental Impact of the Israeli Wars
A whole year of environmental destruction in the region renders any environmental talks or campaigns mere nonsense. The significant and ongoing environmental damages of what the occupying entity has been doing in Gaza for the past 12 months, and what it is currently doing in Lebanon, could reach the entire planet and the region in particular, akin to what fossil fuels and plastic could do for years. These result in catastrophic effects on the region as a whole, as well as on the ecosystems of the Mediterranean, and vital infrastructure, directly threatening the health and lives of the people of Gaza and Lebanon. The Israeli army observes the “scorched earth policy” to destroy what it cannot occupy, including land, crops, natural resources, and infrastructure, notwithstanding the environmental impact that extends to the areas it controls, and expands to encompass the entire region. Land: 1- Military operations have led to soil contamination with heavy metals such as lead and mercury, along with toxic chemicals, causing soil infertility and chronic diseases including cancer. 2- Military operations in Gaza have destroyed over 42% of agricultural and arable lands in Gaza, with the United Nations estimating losses from these damages at nearly 629 million USD until June 2024. 3- Military operations have destroyed nearly 90% of olive tree agricultural lands in various areas of the Gaza Strip, depriving the people of Gaza of olive harvesting for the second consecutive year. Olive trees take at least five years to bear fruit. The destruction of olive trees affects the environmental balance, increases desertification, and negatively impacts biodiversity, not to mention the economic aspect and the population’s reliance on the crop. 4- The Israeli crimes have turned Gaza’s land into dangerously polluted land, affecting health and destroying the food security of the area, thus its dependence on food aid post-war for long decades, indicating that the war of starvation continues even after the war of arms. Additionally, all what is happening to Gaza’s land has a direct impact on the environmental balance of the region, including lands under the Israeli control. Water: 57% of water facilities, including desalination plants, wells, and water networks, have been destroyed, leading to a severe water shortage. Over 162 wells have been destroyed, in addition to the 3 main water desalination plants in Gaza, resulting in a loss of 95% of the water production capacity in Gaza Strip and estimated losses of 503 million USD. Groundwater contamination with heavy metals and chemicals resulting from military operations renders 97% of water in Gaza undrinkable for humans, animals, or irrigation. According to the World Health Organization, nitrate levels are 6 times higher than the permissible limit. Cases of waterborne diseases, such as diarrhea and hepatitis, have indeed increased due to water pollution. Pollution from sewage water and chemicals leads to groundwater contamination. The collapse of sewage treatment networks has led to the discharge of 60,000 cubic meters of untreated water daily into the Mediterranean Sea, causing pollution and destruction of marine habitats. Estimates indicate that 25% of the sea water near Gaza has become contaminated with harmful bacteria and heavy metals. Pollution can be carried through marine currents to neighboring countries in the Mediterranean Sea, such as Egypt, Lebanon, Turkey, and Greece, threatening water quality and fish resources in these countries. Moreover, Israel heavily relies on sea water desalination plants that it pollutes, endangering everyone’s lives. Air Pollution: 1- Continuous bombing, explosions, and airborne dust from the rubble have led to the release of thousands of tons of fine particles and chemicals into the air, including sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and toxic particles such as asbestos. 2- The number of fires due to the aggression from October 2023 to only January 2024 reached 165 fires, including 19 in industrial areas, resulting in air pollution with toxic chemicals. 3- This pollution poses a significant risk to the respiratory health of the population, especially with continued inhalation of fine particles. Hospitals have witnessed a 300% increase in respiratory diseases and asthma cases during the first three months of the aggression alone, affecting over 179,000 individuals, including children and the elderly. 4- The total rubble generated by military attacks has exceeded 39.2 million tons, equivalent to over 10 pyramids of Giza. This quantity also covers more than 365 square kilometers, the total area of Gaza, with a height exceeding one meter of rubble, which is 13 times more than the total rubble resulting from all previous wars since 2008. The rubble contains hazardous materials including over 800,000 tons of potential asbestos and unexploded ordnance (UXOs). Airborne dust poses a respiratory hazard, especially with the presence of toxic substances. These materials will continue to pose a health risk to the population for decades to come. 5- Approximately 1,100 to 1,200 tons of waste accumulate daily in the affected areas, including 400 tons daily in displacement sites alone. Over 1.5 tons of contaminated medical waste are left untreated every day in hospitals, increasing the risk of spreading infectious diseases and hazardous chemicals. With waste transportation issues unresolved, residents resort to burning waste outdoors, further complicating the issue of air pollution. 6- Air pollution spreads to neighboring countries with the wind, including territories under Israeli occupation in the West Bank, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, and Greece. 7- Toxic gases emissions and fine particles resulting from destruction may contribute to rising temperatures, and exacerbate the effects of climate change in the Mediterranean region, contributing to global climate change. It is worth mentioning that the above information is the latest recorded data, not to mention the damages that are yet undocumented, or the updated damages caused by the failure of the international community to stop the year-long ongoing genocide. The environmental impact of the war on Gaza requires a rapid and comprehensive intervention to protect the population and the environment in the short and long term. The international community has to take urgent measures to provide support and assistance in rebuilding the environmental infrastructure and enhancing the protection of natural
Themselves the Verge of Seas to be:Scientists and Storytellers of the Rising Sea in Alexandria
Soha Mohsen[1] Introduction According to the United Nations’ best-case scenario, at least 30% of the city of Alexandria will be flooded and over a quarter of the population will have to be rehoused by the year 2050. As reported by the UN Climate Panel (IPCC) in their 6th assessment report, the rising sea level of the Mediterranean due to climate change will have dramatic implications because its deep waters will warm more than all the oceans. This suspended futurity of Egypt’s second biggest metropole and its most historically significant port city intimately intersects with the overall uncertainty and instability lived and experienced by Egyptian subjects in the complicated and prolonged aftermath of the 25 January 2011 revolution, whereby the discourse of “sinking” operates not only on the level of city’s materiality but also on the level of a collapsing national economy. The shore that is disappearing and being lost to the Alexandrian public- due to the rapid and aggressive privatization by the state- is the same shore that is witness to the rising sea levels due to global warming. Taking this paradox between the appearance/ disappearance of the sea-and-land scopes, this project seeks to understand how the rising sea becomes the site of contested epistemologies, imaginations and representations in Alexandria, in relation to Egyptian politics, cultural production and scientific discourse. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork and archival research, this paper begins by introducing the context of my study, elaborating on Alexandria’s status of “endangerment” as demonstrated and discussed by local and national oceanographic and marine scientists. After that it moves on to share a brief reflection based on ethnographic interviews and archival research, exploring the history of the oceanographic sciences in Egypt (specifically along Egyptian Mediterranean), namely the establishment of the National Institute for Oceanography and Fisheries (NIOF) as well as the Department of Oceanography at the Faculty of Sciences in Alexandria University. I aim to understand the complex subjectivity that oceanographers and marine scientists embody in endangered coastal cities, and the ways in which their personal and professional encounters with the sea shape and become shaped by the larger political, economic and cultural atmospheres of Alexandria. Lastly, the paper ends with a discussion of the nature of knowledge making about the sea-level rise (or the absence thereof) that unfold in relation to, about, and in proximity to the sea. Note on methods used: The vignettes presented in this paper are based on fieldwork over 9 months from September 2023 to May 2024. During this period of ethnographic fieldwork, I deployed several ethnographic methods simultaneously, such as: archival research, semi-structured interviews, and participant observation. The data/ findings in this paper are based on in-depth, semi-structured interviews with members from the National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries and the Department of Oceanography at the Faculty of Sciences, Alexandria University, combined with my experience as a Visiting Researcher at the Human and the City Center for Social Research (HCSR) in Alexandria during the period between November 2023 and May 2024. I am tremendously grateful to HCSR team for welcoming me into their space and for continuing to provide me with profound insights about the urban, sociocultural and maritime histories of Alexandria. Context: The IPCC AR6 report advises that climate change will exacerbate storm surges and coastal flooding in the eastern Mediterranean basin in the upcoming decades. The above is particularly critical for low-lying arid cities in developing nations like Alexandria. Alexandria projects a high-end rate of sea-level rise ranging between 6.4 and 7.8 mm per year (IPCC 2021). The sea level is expected to rise between 0.2 m and 0.25 m at Alexandria by 2050, threatening fisheries on the Mediterranean Sea coast in Egypt and its low-lying coastal tourist areas (World Bank Group, 2014, p. 129). As the report indicates; “Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia are the most exposed countries to sea-level rise (World Bank, 2014). Among MENA countries, Egypt is particularly exposed with several coastal cities at risk of inundation (Frihy et al. 2010; Solyman and Abdel Monem, 2020; Elshinnawy and Almaliki 2021).” I started my fieldwork journey in Alexandria in the windy fall season of 2023, with certain expectations about the anxious atmosphere of a city that is on the brink of “sinking”. “Being there” (Favret-Saada 1990; Giordano 2023) among different local communities of residents, scientists, researchers and cultural producers, introduced me to a different, even more nuanced reality. Living in Alexandria, working among and with local communities, I came to contact with a scene of loss that, surprisingly, is not on-the-way but already here, acutely present and powerful. Whether Alexandria is going to sink, partially or completely, or not at all, is an issue discussed and ‘assessed’ by numerous scholars and scientists, and investigated in multiple past and ongoing research projects. Consulting these reports, documents, announcements and studies while also living in the city, I came to realize that the notion of sinking quite poetically and with precision captures much of the present condition in Alexandria. Echoing Stefan Helmreich’s remarks on seawater as a theory machine, I suggest that seawater has become an explicit figure for anthropological and social theorizing, “especially in the age of globalization, which is so often described in terms of currents, flows, and circulation”. I also join Helmreich in his critical take on the generativity of watery metaphors to our modes of social and cultural analysis. Similar to him, I am interested in employing sea-water as a theoretical and an explanatory tool (theory machine) while at the same time as a phenomenon to be examined in and of itself (a thing in the world) (Helmreich 2011). “An estimated 45 percent of the population of Alexandria currently lives on land situated below sea level” (Michel 2010). In Alexandria, for a scenario involving a sea level rise of 0.5 meters over the next century, about 30% of the city would be lost to inundation and saltwater intrusion if no countermeasures were taken (ElRaey 2010). How is sea level rise encountered, known, and conceptualized in Alexandria? How does
Workers between Climate Change and Decent Work [Webinar]
Climate change and decent work are among the challenges of the twenty-first century that have long been dealt with in isolation despite their close association. Moreover, the growing impact of climate change in the absence of decent work standards is causing great harm to workers and employment policies. The lecture attempts to shed light on the definition of decent work and its relationship to climate change; the opportunities offered by green economy and how to achieve social and climate justice for all from a labor perspective; some success stories in achieving environmental sustainability from all over the world; and the role of international union federations and the ILO in dealing with the risks of climate change on the future of employment. Speaker: Wejdan Hussein Abd Rabbo; a syndicalist interested in environment and gender. Kindly visit our channel; to watch the Webinar and more!
Is Egyptian food security in danger? Food Security and Climate Change.
As we approach the mid third decade of the third millennium, it is obvious that the climate change is really happening, and is no longer a mere assumption with potential repercussions. It has become a tangible reality with impacts on all aspects of human beings’ lives. It is also apparent that some of these will take a catastrophic turn in the short\ medium term during the second half of the current century at most, if not before. This research paper focuses on the impact of climate change on food security in Egypt, identify the effects of the global food system and food supply chains and its contribution to climate change, and the impact of climate change on food security in Egypt. It proposes some solutions that can limit or mitigate climate change and its expected impact on food in Egypt. The paper uses information, data and figures in an analytical manner to identify the current situation and possible future scenarios of climate change and its consequences on food security in Egypt.
Is the City Sinking? Alexandria Facing Climate Change
In the occasion of hosting the Conference of Parties in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP27) in Sharm el-Sheikh from 6 to 18 November 2022 with the participation of more than 40,000 people from all over the world, the UN Secretary-General, Anthony Guterres, gave a speech in which he emphasized that climate change is happening at catastrophic speed, and noted that sea levels are rising at twice the speed of the 1990s— posing an existential threat and threatening billions of people in coastal areas. The danger of sea level rise on the northern coasts of Egypt, especially the Nile Delta and Alexandria, has become a source of great concern to the Egyptian population and relevant parties, coinciding with the warnings based on international and local studies, which alerted to the danger of sea level rise change. In this research paper, we review the location of the city of Alexandria on the Egyptian coast, the natural characteristics of the city and the history of the flooding and sinking of some of its parts in the past, to clarify the general context and the conditions that result in the extent of vulnerability to climate change. The second part explores the causes of sea level rise, climate change scenarios, the occurring and expected changes to sea level according to these concepts. It then moves to the threats of future floods and the impact of climate changes on rainfall and temperature in the city. To read the research in Arabic: Click here! Source of the cover photo: Yasmine Hussein
The Impact of Climate Change on Female Agricultural Workers
Risks Endangering Agriculture in the Nile Delta Amidst the global talks on Climate Change, and in light of Egypt hosting the Conference of Parties (COP27) in November 2022, there is an increasing interest in the consequences of Climate Change on Egypt. Agriculture is considered one of the most important economic sectors in Egypt in terms of production and job opportunities, and represents 15% of the gross domestic product (GDP)[1]. In this article, we focus on female agricultural workers, and the effect of Climate Change on them. The Nile Delta’s agricultural lands are expected to deteriorate owing to two main factors: firstly, the temperature rise, and accordingly, sea level rise. This increase threatens some agricultural lands in the Delta with sinking, especially agricultural lands on the Mediterranean coast such as Kafr El-Sheikh and Damietta. Secondly, the irrigation of the Delta agricultural lands by flooding as well as the rising temperature both lead to water evaporation, which increases the salinization of the soil in the long run. Thus, Climate Change threatens female agricultural workers, as they constitute 58% of total agricultural employment in 2020[2]. Moreover, the agriculture sector employs 45% of total women’s employment in Egypt[3]. As a result, any damage to the agriculture affects its female labor because it is fragile, given that they are seasonal, cheap, or unpaid. In addition, rural women face significant challenges in accessing financial resources, especially agricultural property. Female Agricultural Workers’ Status in Egypt In terms of work stability, women’s paid agricultural labor is majorly informal, since 99% of this labor is informal[4], i.e., they do not have formal labor contracts nor social or health insurance. In addition, a large segment of this employment is seasonal; whereby they work throughout specific times during the year, often within harvest periods, and are underpaid[5], seasonal employment represents 38% of the total agricultural female employment[6]. Climate change threatens the working conditions of agricultural workers, as rising temperatures and increased rainfall reduce women’s working hours, and/or lead to health risks, such as sunstrokes or severe fatigue caused by difficult weather. This compromises their economic conditions, given the nature of their seasonal and low-paid work. In Egypt, for example, female workers receive their salaries on a daily basis, and the average daily wage is estimated at only 6 USD.[7] Besides, a large segment of female labor is invisible because they perform unpaid work. In other words, women work within the family for her father, brother or husband, without monetary compensation. In the Egyptian rural areas, 79.5% of working women in the countryside work in a family project without pay, compared to 14.6% of working men in the countryside[8]. These activities range from direct agricultural work, such as plowing lands or harvesting the crops, in addition to activities related to agriculture, such as animal husbandry, sorting crops, and preparing dairy for sale[9]. Women Agricultural Property Despite the prominent participation of women in agricultural work in its various segments, women’s agricultural ownership is still modest. Women’s ownership represents 5.2% of the total agricultural land ownership in 2015[10], while women’s possession of land represents only 3%[11]. This inferior percentage can be attributed to social norms in the Egyptian countryside that give priority to ownership of men. Moreover, the social norms consider that women’s inheritance of land takes it out from the family, since its ownership -in their point of view- is transferred to women’s husbands. Accordingly, female agricultural labor spend long working hours and do not receive fair pay in return, or even their right to inherit agricultural land. Furthermore, agricultural property in general is fragmented; 81% of agricultural land does not exceed 3 acres[12]. Accordingly, women working in agriculture do not benefit equitably from their work, whether in terms of income or ownership[13]. Legal Background of Social Protection In light of former data, it is observed that 99% of women’s employment in agriculture is informal; which is the employment that does not have any labor contracts or social insurance from disability, old age and unemployment. Egyptian labor law excluded female agricultural workers from having women rights’ in workplaces; which are obligating the employer to provide nurseries for the children of female workers, and the right to paid maternity leave and childcare leave[14]. On the other hand, the Social Insurance and Pension Law encompasses seasonal agricultural workers, giving them the right to establish their own social insurance fund. Recommendations Based on these factors, female agricultural labor direly suffer from the consequences of climate change on agriculture in Egypt. Besides, they find that their jobs in agriculture, or the income of their entire family, are threatened. Those women do not have any economic alternative if they lose these opportunities, due to the lack of social protection, and limited access to resources. Therefore, female agricultural labor will face severe consequences of climate change in agriculture, which increases the necessity of providing them with social protection, and enhancing their access to resources through a fair payment for their work in agriculture. Footnotes: [1] “Climate Change Fact Sheets (in Arabic)”, The Human and the City for Social Research. Available at https://bit.ly/3eECVmR. Last visited: 18 October 2022. [2] ILO STAT Explorer, Egypt, Employment by Sex and Economic Activity. [3] Profile of Women in Rural Egypt, UN Women 2018. Available at: https://bit.ly/3VBYzc3 Last visited: 18 October 2022. [4] ILO STAT Explorer, Egypt, Informal Employment by Sex and Economic Activity. [5] Kandeel, Amal, Millions of Rural Working Women in Egypt at Risk from Climate Change. Middle East Institute – October 2017. Available at: https://bit.ly/3CL6eMN Last visited: 18 October 2022. [6] El Khorazaty, Noha. Egyptian Women’s Agriculture Contribution; Assessment of the Gender Gap for Sustainable Development. 2021. American University in Cairo, Master’s Thesis. AUC Knowledge Fountain. Available at: https://fount.aucegypt.edu/etds/1533 [7] Mona Ezzat, Al’Amelat ElZara’iat: Hokouq Daa’a ma bayn AlIsteghlal wal Tahmish, Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Egypt: 2021. Available at: https://bit.ly/3D9BPsE. Last visited: 18 October 2022. [8] Calculation from “Annual Report of Workforce Research 2020 (in Arabic)” pg. 55, Central Agency for Public [9] Profile of Women in Rural Egypt, UN Women 2018. Available at:
Impact of War on Climate Change
Since the dawn of history, war have been part of the human experience. When we think of war, scenes of bloodshed, hideous corpses, demolition of homes, dismantling families and leaving homelands come to mind. The environment is one of the unknown and silent victims of wars. Habitat destruction may ruin the ecological system at large, encompassing air pollution, land degradation, biodiversity loss, harm to marine life. These impacts may extend to tens of years affecting human lives as well as contributing to climate change. At a time when scientists, thinkers and various concerned authorities dealing with climate changes struggle to maintain normal temperature rates and work to stop its rise, we see new wars added to the list, such as the conflict between Russia and Ukraine, whose consequences are expected to be catastrophic on climate changes due to the energy crisis it generates. The United States, Saudi Arabia and Russia are among the top three countries in the fuel trade, and Russia is the first source of natural gas to Europe. Due to the ongoing conflict between Russia and the West, European energy security is under threat from Putin. The Russian president refused to accept the cost of natural gas either in US dollars or in Euros, and insisted on receiving in his country’s currency, the Russian ruble. The United States and Europe have begun stockpiling their coal as a precaution in case Russia refuses to sell them natural gas or decides to stop providing financial support to ease the pressure of the war on Ukraine. Germany and some neighboring countries have already temporarily returned to relying on coal until the crisis is resolved or alternative sources of natural gas are found. The problem lies in not knowing the actual length of this temporary period, as it may extend to several years. It is also expected that this will not only be limited to Germany and some neighboring countries, but will include all of Europe, after they were on the path of the complete banning of the use of coal by 2038[1]. The situation was further complicated by the sabotage actions against the two gas pipelines: “Nord Stream 1” which started its work in 2011 and is able to transport 170 million cubic meters per day of gas, and “Nord Stream 2” which was supposed to transport 55 billion cubic meters of gas but was discontinued by Germany in response to the Russian war on Ukraine[2]. Given the damage to the two gas lines, it is expected that repairs will not be completed before six months at best, which confirms the fact that the upcoming European winter will be the most difficult with high gas prices and scarcity, and consequently high prices of electricity needed for heating, which brings us back to the use of wood as a heating source; thus, logging huge numbers of trees for this purpose. The problem of returning to coal use is not only in extraction, manufacturing, transportation or trade, but rather lies in the process of its combustion. It is the largest contributor to the increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Coal-fired electricity generation produces nearly twice as much greenhouse gases per kilowatt as compared to natural gas generation[3]. If this shift in energy sources occurs, it will jeopardize attempts to maintain global warming (by only 1.5°C) and existing efforts to try to reduce carbon dioxide concentrations (to 350ppm) at serious risk. During wars and armed attacks, green spaces are destroyed or burnt; this leads to a rise in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, in addition to destroying the natural habitats of animals, birds and other living creatures that use forests and green spaces as their environment. As green spaces are destroyed, it becomes more and more difficult to get rid of carbon dioxide and it remains in the atmosphere for a longer time. Militaries consume huge amounts of fossil fuels, which directly contribute to global warming. For example, if the US army were a country, it would have ranked 48th in terms of total emissions around the world[4]. As most countries invest more money in their armies, the use of fossil fuels is rising, with or without conflict. And while the military (even without engaging in wars) contributes to climate change, active warfare increases this contribution exponentially. For example, the United States and allied forces have launched more than 337,000 bombs and missiles at other countries over the past 20 years[5]. Airplanes used to load and transport these weapons burn about 16 liters of gasoline per kilometer[6]. With the explosion of each bomb, the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases, in addition to destroying the soil and green spaces, which are among the most important sinks of carbon dioxide. The so-called US war on terrorism has produced 1.2 billion metric tons of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, with more global warming effects than the annual emissions of 257 million cars[7]. Drinking water infrastructure is severely damaged during wars, which affects the availability of water, as is the case in Syria after 10 years of war[9], in addition to the pollution of water bodies adjacent to military camps resulting from the dumping of waste of all kinds, the most dangerous of which is the fuel waste or chemicals used in the maintenance of warships[10]. In addition to nuclear and hydrogen bombs weapons tests conducted by countries such as the USA, Russia and North Korea[11], which can lead to several negative effects such as soil and groundwater pollution, and marine pollution with chemicals and minerals that may include mercury, iron and plutonium. This could also have severe consequences for plants and marine organisms in these areas, leading to disruptions in the food chain[12]. The health and safety of natural resources, now and in the future, is one of the most important sustainable development goals in light of the climate changes, which affect soil fertility as a result of drought resulting from high temperatures and their negative impact on the cultivation of crops in various